The effect of different factors on egg white Essay Example for Free

The effect of different factors on egg white Essay As the title suggests I am going to investigate the effect of various factors in egg white. And as all of us know that egg meals are rich in proteins and that why we feed them to small children. But not all the parts of the egg have the same amount of proteins in them and as we know that there is the yellow part which has fairly less amount of protein compared to the white part and that is why I chose the white part to test the effect various external factors on the protein which it contains and it is called albumen. And to understand what I am going to do in my coursework I am going first to give a small explanation on the nature of the proteins and their structure in general and albumen in special. Proteins are in general made of small particles called amino acids. And this is achieved by when many amino acids combine together to form polypeptides in a condensation reaction. Those polypeptides join together also by a condensation reaction to form a protein. And this is in short how albumen is also formed. And thus we could say that amino acids are the basic units from which proteins are formed of and below is a structure of an amino acid. R H O N C C H H OH As we see above this is a simplified structure of an amino acid and from the diagram we could see that structure has in its center a carbon atom which is called the alpha carbon and to this alpha carbon there are four different groups attached to it and they are as follow. The first one is a hydrogen atom the second is a basic amino group and the third is the carboxyl group (COOH) which is usually acidic in most cases and in the end the fourth group is the R group which is variable in length and plays an important role in determining and deciding the nature of the amino acid. Therefore any amino acid, which has in its place a carboxyl group, which is an additional one would be an acidic one and if in its place it has an additional amino group it, would be a basic. That was in summary a brief explanation of the structure of an amino acid but for each structure should be held by bonds which keep them in shape and in my experiment I am going investigate how the effect various factors like acids and alkalis have on maintaining those bonds and that why we should take a look on the bonds holding the structure of amino acids. The bonds holding the amino acids are hydrogen bonds, which are founded between CO and NH groups. The second type is the ionic bonds, which occurs when the R group exits in an ionic form. The third type is the disulphide bond, which occurs between the sulphur groups of the amino acid cytosine. The last type is the hydrophobic bond and which is the most important in maintaining the structure of a protein and that is because the exclude water molecules in an aqueous environment. Moreover there are two types of proteins one is the fibrous proteins and the other is the globular proteins which albumen belong to this group and the most important characteristics of this group are that they are soluble in water and its chains are folded to form spherical shapes as shown below. Now any change in the structure due to any external factors, which affect the protein, will cause a change in its shape leading the protein not to carry its proper function. This process is called denaturation. When this process occurs in the protein albumen the albumen reverse to become a fibrous protein causing a white insoluble curd to form called the coagulation of the albumen. For denaturation to occur there are several factors which helps it to happen and this what I am going to investigate. One of those factors and which we know since lower classes is heating. Heating causes the atoms within the protein to gain kinetic energy and breaking the bonds. Other factors are like adding acids, alkalis, heavy metals etc.. . Those chemicals combine with the COO groups in the protein leading to a change in the structure and the denaturation of the protein. Those chemicals also form coagulated albumen when added to albumen. After going through what I wrote above I came to a personal conclusion which I am going to make it as my hypothesis is that the amount of coagulated protein formed increases or proportional to the concentration of the chemicals used which are external factors and physical factors it was exposed to. Now after mentioning my hypothesis I am going now to test the truthfulness of this hypothesis I am going to carry out an experiment to prove it and below is how I am going to plan my experiment and what chemicals I am going to use and etc.. . And below is a graph, which shows what I mean: At the beginning when I decided to start my experiment I decided to investigate a physical factor along with using chemicals. And the physical factor I decided upon was freezing that is because we know the effect of heating so I was interested to observe what freezing would do to egg albumen. This was for the physical factor, for the chemicals I decided to observe the effect o f acids, alkalis and heavy metals and for the acids I decided to use hydrochloric acid (HCl) and for the alkali I decided to use sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and for the heavy metals I decided to use either mercury chloride or silver chloride depending on the availability. And for each chemical I decided to use three different concentrations for each and they are going to be . 0. 25M, 0. 5M, 0. 75M and 1M for the acid, alkali and the heavy metal. To carry out the experiment I got to use some materials and apparatus and below is a list of them followed by the use of each in brief: Silver chloride Each of the materials and apparatus above has specific uses as shown below: Beakers: are going to hold the whole amount of the egg white and acids, alkalis and the heavy metals. Test tubes: are going to be used to pour the contents together in it for the reaction to take place. Measuring cylinders: are going to be used to measure the contents of the chemicals I am going to use. Droppers: these are going to be used to adjust small amounts when I pour the chemicals in the measuring cylinders like taking on ml off. Test tube holders: are going to hold the test tubes used for the reaction. Lab stickers: are going to be used to label the test tubes to know which is which. Glass rod: are going to be used to stir the contents of the test tubes and skim off the amount of coagulated protein formed. Freezer: is going to be used to place in it the test tube, which is going to test the effect of freezing on egg albumen. Eggs: are of course going to be used to get from them the egg white or egg albumen for the experiment. Hydrochloric acid: it is what I chose from all the ranges of acids to test the effect of acid on egg albumen. Sodium hydroxide: it is what I chose from all the ranges of alkalis to test the effect of alkali on egg albumen. Silver chloride: it is the heavy metal, which I choose to test the effect of heavy metals on egg albumen. And that was in brief the use of each material and the purpose for what I am going to use them. The experimental procedure to be carried:Now I am going to explain how I am going to carry out my experiment. First of all I will get some eggs, separate the egg white from the yellow part of it, and pour them in a beaker. Then I am going to get 30 cmi of the acid for each concentration and pour them in four different beakers, which means that for 1 M I will get 30 cmi of it in a beaker and the same for the other three concentrations. I will then repeat the same procedure for the sodium hydroxide and the silver chloride. Then I will take a measuring cylinder and pour in it 10 cmi of egg white in it. Then I will take the acid and pour in it in another measuring cylinder also 10 cmi of it. After that I take the egg white, pour it in a test tube and above it the acid, and wait until the reaction finishes. The time for which the reaction to finish will depend on how many days would I leave it there fore I decided to leave the mixture of acid and egg white for four days to give it the maximum time for it to finish its reaction. After that I will measure the volume of coagulation formed for example if the coagulation formed was the full 20 cmi then I am going to give it a symbol which will be 5 and so on depending on the volume formed. This procedure, which I used for the acid, is going to be the same for the sodium hydroxide and the heavy metal used thus guarantying a fair test. Precautions to be taken: When carrying the experiment one should be careful and below is the list of the precautions I took:   Wearing gloves: this important because it would protect my hands in case the acid, alkali and the heavy metal I am going to use can fall on the and burn my hands.   Lab coat: same as above but for the protection of the rest of my body. Not breaking glass apparatus: so as not injure my hands by glass shards caused by the breaking of the glass thus I should be careful.   Electric points: as I am going to test the effect of freezing it would be normally that I am going to use a freezer that is why I got to check the electric points so as not to get an electric shock   Eye protection: I am going to wear eye goggles to protect my eyes in case a splash of acid reaches my eyes.   Protection against salmonella: as all of us know that the surface of the egg, which means the eggshell, contains the bacteria salmonella thus one should Take care to wipe the eggshell first before the experiment and to wash his hands thoroughly after finishing his experiment. Factors to be controlled: For a fair test to be carried there are various factors to be controlled to ensure that fair test to be carried and below are the list of factors that should be controlled:   Maintaining a constant temperature: to make sure that the experiment goes smoothly one should maintain a constant temperature preferably a room temperature and that is because it the temperature was raised the rate of reaction will change. To leave all the test tubes for the same time so as none of them will have an advantage on the other.   Same amount of egg white to be used in all as the same amount of acid, alkali and heavy metal to be same through out the whole experiment.   To ensure accuracy one should repeat each experiment at least twice and take the mean of the values recorded.   I will try to make the reaction go by itself and prevent shaking any of the test tubes to give a fair chance to all the other test tubes.

A Set Of Abnormal Psychology Cases Psychology Essay

A Set Of Abnormal Psychology Cases Psychology Essay In most cases psychologists draw their diagnostics by conducting an interview with their clients like the one conducted by Louise on Margaret. This is based on the fact that understanding ones problem from the horses mouth is easier. There are various factors that may be deduced from such an assessment. For example Louise was able to identify many changes that her client has undergone and the difficulty she faces in dealing with them. There are also social factors that can not be understood otherwise that impact greatly on many people with psychological disturbances. It was also as a result of this assessment that the client reported her recent memory loss that shows her awareness of her abnormal conditions. Therefore this assessment was meant to determine what ails Margaret and thereafter draw some useful therapies to help her go back to normalcy. In her conclusion Louise drew some conclusions concerning Margarets condition. Margaret reported some changes in her menstrual periods. She noticed a change in her moods which has partly contributed to her moodiness although this could be as a result of hormonal imbalance due to menopause considering Margarets age. Further, Louise underlined Margarets dealing with her son being away and her inaccessible daughter as she is too much preoccupied with her child. Margaret is diagnosed to be struggling with this change of life hence her condition. Louise also drew from Margaret that she has become frequently forgetful and she is aware of it. She is also aware of her change of mood and reaction towards her daughter which she does not want her to discover. This could be attributed to her general feeling of anger and loss thus; she has lost interest in life. This show of self awareness is depicted when Louise asked her about her anger towards her daughter. She burst to tears because Louise had discovered her true feelings towards her daughter which she was concealing. The reactions portrayed by Margaret during the assessment are the best example of another dimension of Margarets psychological assessment. Margaret portrays anger and sadness following her relation with her daughter. She believe that her daughter rushed into marriage and she is now less concerned about her. It was also concluded that due to pervasive anxiety she loses sleep, overeat, over drink, has spasmodic moods and memory distractions. As a result of this she has gained extra weight that she sees as part of her problem. In the Margarets assessment, psychological testing is vital because it would test her take on her condition. For example whether she appreciates change or to whom does she hold responsible for her condition. Self proclamation is important as it is out of such discussions that a professional draws conclusions on how to handle the situation. This is called mental status evaluation in which the coherence in thought is assessed. Due to her history of her family, she could be judged as having depression. Margarets father is reported to have died when she was three and this led to her mother being away from home most of the times. That could be the reason for her unconscious suppressed desire not to separate from her children. Physical screening for Margaret is necessary in order to diagnose various possible complications that may be evident as a result of the signs and symptoms she narrated. There are several problems that could be confirmed in the course of medical examination. Medical testing could rule out her biological hormonal imbalance following the previous hormonal test done to the patient. Considering her age and the frequent premenstrual moodiness, it is logical to rule out hormonal imbalances related to menopause. Possible complications for Margarets case include memory lapse due to memory losses witnessed and neurological malfunction. Physical examination may also be useful in confirming the reason for her overweight and the increased appetite that has devastated her sex life. Case study two: Lillian Case two illustrates Lillians defense in life where she draws confidence in herself by her personality disorder. Her defense of splitting is her major preoccupation in dealing with her situation. Right from the onset, she complains and enquires as to why her life is being made difficult by what she refers to as some idiot. What follows is a description of how other people have blocked her way always. Her description of the event that unfolded in the coffee line proves that she is the problem but her weaknesses are evident on her mistreatment and blame on others. This way according to her, she is not the problem, the problem is from without. Lillian is also very sensitive on matters of gender discrimination as she cites that her former boss treated her badly because she was a woman. She resorts to finding solution in the workers union. This is a commonsensical issue but she doesnt care anyway because she is not the problem. Her problem is proved further by the fact that she currently does a housekeeping job even after college education. Before this, she has gone down the stairs and lost six jobs in ten years. Her social life is limited to her drinking friends, unstable lasting sexual relationships with men she meets at the bar. She uses her drugs to soothe her nerves. This is helpful because it would be worse if she reduces herself to depression due to self blame. This is necessary from her point of view because she feels better about herself when she does so. Lillians constant anger in borderline personality disorder may be natural or inborn. History proves that Lillian even before her father died she would conflict with her mother where her father sided with her. This proves that she could have natural tendency to have bouts of anger. Her father could have been that kind as demonstrated by his support and siding with her in her row with her mother. If her father did not see any cause of hunger in her daughter both could have something shared. There is also a possibility that Lillians condition could be as a result of disappointment and many failures in life. Lillian has had a string of disappointment in her employment. She losses jobs and has plummeted to a position of a housekeeper. This could turn her to anger. In her social life, we are also told that she feels guilty often but her defense is her unconscious transfer of that blame to a second persons act. This way she is elated and soothed that she is clean. Therefore there is a possibility that Lillians anger could be both as result of some existential factors and inborn. Lillian border line personality disorder was depended on taking very many other factors constant. It was only drawn from her blame on others and dominance of anger fluctuations from hope to disappointments in relationships, workplace conflicts, drug use and lack of self appraisal. It never considered that this could be an inborn condition. There could also be a possibility that her condition is worsened by her drug use however mild. Differential analysis could therefore ignore some important parameters influencing some situation. Her antisocial personality disorder was ruled regardless of her self blame sometimes. She has failed to relate well with people at work, friends and even her mother because of this condition. This leads her to blaming everyone for some cause. For instance she feels her mother favors her siblings; she thinks her boss at work hates her because she is a woman and generally feels victimized by other peoples acts. Lillian justified her misbehavior as drug use as a response to the stress caused by other people who she finds as a problem. Lillians anxiety disorder is born of her desire to expect too much from others. She expected too much of a laxity from her boss that she had to be sacked. she expects too much from her mum and also from the society especially from the union representative and thus it is hard to avoid disappointments and disillusionments Case study three: Jim In Case three we are introduced to Jim and his situation that requires psychotherapy. A very good example of a vegetative sign of depression is his inability to sleep which is consistent. This is accompanied by his extreme feeling of despair and anxiety. Sigmund Freud, an expert in the field of psychoanalysis would analyze depression as anger turned against self. This can apply to Jim because he is blaming himself for ruining his girlfriends life when he abandoned her. There is also the issue of body and mind struggle. Normally the two entities coordinate harmoniously to produce the normalcy in life. However, his case is different with all the depression. His mind contemplates suicide in order to punish himself and as a result he has shed off much of his weight. Jims body and mind, as result of this struggle and depression are now enemies. Another struggle between his mind and body is seen whenever he comes up with a painting. He literally ends up destroying it. There is a contest and infighting of his mind and body and thus he poses the biggest danger to himself more than to anyone else. It is for this chief reason that the clinical findings prescribes that protective hospitalization is required until medication and psychotherapy work on him. A mood congruent delusion is a state where by some one is inconsistent in their usual mood that affects the reinterpretation of things in another way. For example Jim is not consistent in his former behavior when he started looking at himself as a destroyer. His way of perception changed as a result of his depression and self blame. He has conceptualized a world of depressed thoughts and thought patterns that are confirming his melancholy. Actually all what Jim ails from is anger. He is for sure angered at himself for ruining his girlfriends life. That is why he has had relentless attacks of himself resulting to depressed behavior, thought processes and mood fluctuation. There is some evidence of concealed anger in Jim. One reason he can conceal this is because he may have loved his girlfriend so much that hurting her would devastate him too. Secondly he sees himself as selfish when he turned down her request. He might have deep seated regrets as to why life let him meet a girl who did not understand him when he presented his case. He may conceal this because first he has himself to blame and has made out his decision though unconsciously to punish himself. This leads him to spend most time fantasizing his physical health and contemplating suicide. His dreams at night would reveal his concealed fears and desires as it is theorized by Sigmund Freud in his interpretation of dreams. From the onset, Jim was judge for himself and he declared his guilt and assigned himself punishments. He no longer finds need or pleasure in company. He spends time smoking cigarettes and thinking about his death. As a result of this self guilt, he has declined eating thus lost a good deal of weight. He has also undertaken unconscious self punishment of neglecting his hygiene and general normal life as he has imprisoned himself in bed where he buys a lot of time to think about his worthlessness and pain. Another punishment he has subjected himself to is to destroy his creativitys products. Whenever he does a work he destroys it at the end of the day. There is also psychological punishment where his conscious is always tormented by nightmares of some gruesome women attacking him and that reduces him to crying like a child. This can be associated by his suppressed desire to punish himself and whenever this happens Jim feels that his selflessness deserved punishment. Case four: Janet In the forth case, the precipitating stressor event that might have kicked of Janet schizophrenic episode can be noted from the history his parent gave. There was a time when she is reported to have scratched her wrist with a razor in an act that is termed as self destructing. Then there was her being separated from her family members who used to care and support her. There are other factors that are noted in her history to have been repressed causes. She is reported that from the time she was young the girl had been shy, socially awkward and sensitive. This historic evidence shows that she has had that condition but under the cause and understanding of her family members, it had been contained. Moreover when she was seven years she had gone slowed school. The family undertook a therapy that was corrective to the situation. In her adolescent she frequently argued with her mother although this can be attributed to hormonal changes that are experiences by many adolescents, the argument reportedly resulted to self harm. She was more provocative and worrisome although this behavior just popped in and disappeared later. Another behavior was that Jane would behave eccentrically as engaging in complex rituals to trigger her sleep. Sometimes she would not want to be seen eating, a clear indication of her psychosocial malfunctioning Another factor that may have triggered her condition may be was her roommates and new environment. She was, on joining college, introduced to an environment which she was not probably used to. She was then left to be controlled by her long encased schizophrenia. Janets primary delusion is her attempt to rescue herself from some inner dangers and fears. Her delusion interprets her parents and nurses as threat geared towards sabotaging her idealized salvation which is to be actualized through Dr. M. It started earlier when she would quarrel with her mother. At this age it did not come out clearly as at those formative stages her condition would retreat. Her confidence and overexcitement in justifying her condition is rife with evidence that she is no longer self sensitive. She fantasizes with Dr M whom she has assumed as a sole hope in bringing about salvation in the world. Her delusion has reduced the world to herself. To her, the world is under attack by same threatening unknown and can be saved only when her desire to unite with Dr. M come to a reality. This is her ultimate optimism and desire to be saved or reserved. Her delusion and hallucination fit together so that she misinterprets real life as attack. This can be traced back from when she was young. She could not understand her mother and they would pick quarrels that sometimes resorted to self destruction. The world she has been living is therefore not the real world. Her hallucinations are evident in the way she interprets Dr.M. She has conceived a Dr. M who is being blocked to reach her, even after she was instructed by a voice to merge with him and save the world. The mistaken sensory perceptions and the way she interprets reality as a threat makes the two to fit together to produce a kind of Janet we see. Her hospitalization saves her and others because she is a danger to others and her self. She has a terrifying intrinsic experiences described as command hallucinations. These hallucinations instruct her to do anything to herself and others. When she perceives everyone as a danger there is a possibility that she can attack anyone under the influence of her delusions. This can also be because her reality is faulty and her judging reality is misleading.

Central Asias Water Resources: Country Comparison

Central Asias Water Resources: Country Comparison Chapter 3 Population of Central Asia: Central Asia is the land of many languages, ethnic groups, religions, and tribes. In 2000, an estimated 55.9 million people lived in Central Asia. Today there are about 65.7 million (ICG, 2014). The below table show the population of Central Asia from 1992 to 2013 Total population of Central Asia (1000 inhab) Source: FAO The table shows the population of central Asian countries from 1992 to 2013. According to this table in 1992 the population of Kazakhstan is 16070, which start decreasing from that year. In 1997, the population of Kazakhstan decreased to 15086 and in 2002 it decreased to the level of 146623. This trends show that after independence from former Soviet Union, the population of Kazakhstan start declining; this is due to the migration of Russian and other Soviet Union member’s countries ethnic people from Kazakhstan. This factor is and push factor for growing population. But after the year 2002, it start growing, in 2007, it became 15396, 16271 in 2012 and 16441 in 2013. Kazakhstan is the 9th largest country in the world[1], its density of population is very low and lowest among Central Asian republics. Kyrgyzstan is a mountainous country, but, the population of Kyrgyzstan grows at a fast rate. In 1992, the population of Kyrgyzstan is 4476, in 2007 it crossed the 5 million mark an d in 2012 it became over 5.5 million and grows day by day. This put number of impact on the development of the country, availability of natural resources, water recourses and it became difficult for government to providing basic amenities to the people. Tajikistan is the smallest country from all five republics of central Asia. It is also one of the poorest republics in the world. Tajikistan caught in civil war just after the independence, in this civil war in five years over 50,000 killed and over 10% population of the country runaway to neighboring countries.[2] But beside all of this the population of Tajikistan is grow at a very rapid rate. In 1992, the population of Tajikistan is 5523 which became 6204 in 2002 and crossed 7 million marks in 2007 and 8 million mark in 2012. In 2013, the population of Tajikistan became 8208 and the population in Tajikistan grows very fast in all central Asian republics. Turkmenistan is a very low density country; due to most of the area of the co untry is desert. So, population in Turkmenistan is very low. In 1992, the population of Turkmenistan is 3882, which became 4600 in 2002 and crossed 5 million marks in 2012. In 2013, it became 5240. Total Renewal water resource per capita (actual) (m3/inhab/yr) Source: FAO The above table shows that total water resources per capita (actual) in all central Asian countries decreasing year by year. In Kazakhstan per capita water resources that was 7351 m3 in 2002, decreased to 6607 m3 in 2012 and 6539 m3 in 2014. In Kyrgyzstan the renewal water resources per capita are decreased from 5277 m3 in 1992 to 4721 m3 in 2002, 4315 m3 in 2012 and 4257 m3 in the year of 2014.In Tajikistan, also the trends of declining of water per capita. In 1992 the per capita renewal water recourses availability was 3967 m3 that was declining to 2669 m3 in 2014. In the Turkmenistan the same trend of decreasing renewal water per capita continues. In 1992, the availability of renewal water resources per capita is 6381 m3 that was decline to 4727 m3 in 2014. When we talk about Uzbekistan the situation is worst. Over half of population of whole central Asian region is lived in Uzbekistan and also increased rapidly. So, the situation becomes critical day by day. The availability of p er capita renewal water resources, that was 2269 m3 in 1992 declined to 1832 m3 in 2007 and 1689 m3 in 2014. Water withdrawal by sectors: -The water withdrawals means withdrawn of the gross quantity of water by different sectors annually for given proposes (FAO, 2012). There are three sectors of water withdrawal these sectors are: agriculture, municipalities, and industry. In the agriculture sector included irrigation, aquaculture, watering and livestock cleaning, the municipalities sector included use of water in houses, villages, towns and cities by population for their domestic proposes. The industrial sector includes the water used in thermal plants for cooling, for dying in leather industry etc. the data related to water withdrawal is taken from the national statics of the countries for most countries, but there is uncertainty in methods that are used for obtaining data (FAO, 2005). Water withdrawal by sectors in Kazakhstan Source: FAO The above table shows that the withdrawal by sector in Kazakhstan changed rapidly from agriculture sector to other sector like industrial and municipal. In 1995, agriculture sector withdrawal over 80% of the country. But in 2002, the situation is changed, the share of water withdrawal by agriculture sector decline from 81% to 75% and the share of industrial sector increased from 1.73% to 4.21%. The share of Municipal sector also changed from 16.86 to 20.66 in 2002. In 2007, the share of agriculture again decline, but industrial sector’s share remains shame as 2002. The big change comes in share of municipal sector, which’s share is increased very rapidly after 2002. Its share is increased from 20.66% in 2002 to 28.18% in 2007 and 29.63% in 2010. These trends will continue in country because of high growth in urbanization and industrial sector. Water withdrawal by sectors (in Percentage) in Kyrgyzstan Source: FAO When we see the table of water withdrawal by sector in Kyrgyzstan then we find out that there is very little changes in water withdrawal by sector. The share of agriculture is biggest from all the sectors in 1994, that was over 94% in 1994 and only 1% declined in its share in 2006. The other two sector’s share is almost 3% each 1994 that remained 3% also in 2006. Water withdrawal by sectors (in Percentage) in Tajikistan Source: FAO The water withdrawal in Tajikistan is similar with Kyrgyzstan. Agriculture is the main sector, withdrawal over 90% water of the country. There are many reasons for this because agriculture is the main sector of the economy of the country and biggest employment provider to the people, and industrial sector is not developed in the country because of mineral recourses and energy recourses and due to the increase in population and urbanization the share of municipal sector is increased very at a very slow rate. Water withdrawal by sectors (in Percentage) in Turkmenistan Source: FAO In Turkmenistan agriculture is the main stay of the employment of the people and also the biggest water withdrawal sector. Its share in 1994 is over 97% in total water withdrawal by the all the sectors of the country, that changed very slowly from other sector like industrial sector and municipal sector. The share of industrial sector was almost half percent in 1994, that increased 1.08% in 2000 and almost two and half percent in 2004 and increased year by year but at a very slow rate. The share of municipal sector increased but at a very slow rate. Water withdrawal by sectors (in Percentage) in Uzbekistan Source: FAO In Uzbekistan the agriculture sector remains the biggest water consumer from the Soviet time. It is also one of the biggest cotton producers in the world and cotton crop is the biggest water consumer of the country. Agriculture is the main stay of the people of the country. In 1994, agriculture sector withdrawal over 93% of the total water withdrawal by the country. The industrial sector withdrawal almost 2% and municipal sector 4% of water in the year 1994. In 2001, the agriculture sector withdrawal 90% , industrial sector almost 4% and municipal sector withdrawal almost five and half percent of water. In these years, the share of agriculture is decline and the share of others sector increased. In 2005, the share of agriculture sector remains same but the share of industrial sector declined almost 1%. On the other hand the share of municipal sector increased from five and half to over 7%. This is due to the increase in population and urbanization. Total Renewal water resource per capita (actual) (m3/inhab/yr) Source: FAO The above table shows that total water resources per capita (actual) in all central Asian countries decreasing year by year. In Kazakhstan per capita water resources that was 7351 m3 in 2002, decreased to 6607 m3 in 2012 and 6539 m3 in 2014. In Kyrgyzstan the renewal water resources per capita are decreased from 5277m3 in 1992 to 4721m3 in 2002, 4315 m3 in 2012 and 4257 in the year of 2014.In Tajikistan, also the trends of declining of water per capita. In 1992 the per capita renewal water recourses availability was 3967m3 that was declining to 2669 m3 in 2014. In the Turkmenistan the same trend of decreasing renewal water per capita continues. In 1992, the availability of renewal water resources per capita is 6381m3 that was decline to 4727 m3 in 2014. When we talk about Uzbekistan the situation is worst. Over half of population of whole central Asian region is lived in Uzbekistan and also increased rapidly. So, the situation becomes critical day by day. The availability of per capi ta renewal water resources, that was 2269 m3 in 1992 declined to 1832 m3 in 2007 and 1689 m3 in 2014. Dams in Central Asia Source: FAO The water system in central Asia region is mange by large numbers of canals, dams and reservoirs etc. there is large trap of canals, which was made in the times of Former Soviet Union all over central Asia, many dams like world’s tallest dam Nurek dam etc and many big reservoir like Andijan, Toktogul, Tyuyamunym and Kairakkum etc are in central Asia to manage water resources of the region (UNECE, 2007). The International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), classified the dams into two categories according to their height, the first category include the dams with the height of 15 meters or above, second category include the dams of between the height of 5 to 15 meters and the storage capacity is more than 3 million m3,[3]. There are over 1200 dams in central Asia region and 110 dams are large dams from these dams. Many of them have inter-state significance because many of them located on the Transboundary rivers like Amu Darya River, Syr Darya River etc. (UNECE, 2007). The total capacity of dams in central Asian countries is 176.8 km3. From which, 95.5 km3 only in Kazakhstan, that is 54% of the total dam’s capacity of the region. Kyrgyzstan accounts 13% dams of the region with the capacity of 23.5 km3. Kambarta and Toktogul are major dams in Kyrgyzstan. There are 17% dams’ of central Asia is in Tajikistan, with the capability of 29.5 km3. Nurek Dam with the height of 300 meters, is world’s tallest dam is located in Tajikistan on Vakhsh River.[4]. Sangtuda-1 and 2 are also very important dams in Tajikistan and country also proposed a dam named Rogan dam on Naryn River, which become world’s highest dam after the completion of construction[5]. Uzbekistan with the capacity of 22.2 km3 is account 13% of the total dams of the region and with the capacity of 6.2 km3 Turkmenistan accounts only 3% dams of the region [1] http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/countries_by_area.htm [2] http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16201032 [3] https://www.adaptation-fund.org/sites/default/files/ilovepdf.com-7.pdf [4] http://www.briskinfo.com/extreme/tallest-dam-in-world-nurek-dam.html [5] http://www.briskinfo.com/extreme/tallest-dam-in-world-nurek-dam.html Germanys Political System | Summary Germanys Political System | Summary German Political System Chandra Chapagai Introduction Political system is basically a structure to decide, govern, implement, and authorize policies and procedures to the citizens of a country. Each country has their own political system developed or designed under which policies, procedures, and legislations to run the country and the citizens. Each nation has some sort of uniqueness in formation of the political system and how to form policies, procedures, and govern the nation. Unlike US, Germany has its own political system to run the country. Germany is a federal parliamentary system country. It has different components of political system and they are constitution, the executive, legislature, judiciary, different states, composed of different political parties. Like all other political system, parliamentary system also has its own strengths and weaknesses. Constitution The basic law of the land in Germany is the constitution. The constitution of Federal Republic of Germany was passed after World War II in 1949. Germany is a social Democratic country. In the constitution, the basic rights of German citizens are guaranteed. All federal and state authorities are bound by the constitution. They cannot do anything that is against what is written in the constitution. It was the constitution that has established democratic parliamentary system in Germany. After the constitution was written it helped to separate powers of German into executive, legislative, and judiciary branches. This constitution helps all these branches to maintain checks and balances to run the country. The Executive The executive branch basically consists of the head of the state, and head of the government. The head of the state is the president and this president is mostly ceremonial but the ceremonial president is also responsible in representing the state, states’ existence, and their legitimate causes, and overall unity of the states in the country. The president also has the power to practice politics and implement laws and order in the country when there are crisis in the parliament and their cabinet members, and is also responsible to handle international issues, sign treaties in the situation when the parliamentary system is in unstable state, and these are all written in the constitution. The president is elected by the legislative team members. The president is elected for two five year terms for maximum time frame. The head of the government is the federal chancellor. In Germany, the federal chancellor is responsible person to run the government and the overall country polices and politics. The chancellor of the federal republic of Germany is responsible for the parliament of the country. It is the responsibility of the chancellor to select the members of the cabinet for the government. Legislature Legislature is another branch of the federal parliamentarian government of Germany. Legislature assembly is divided into two champers and they are Bundestag, and Bundesrat and its bicameral system. The Bundestag and Bundesrat are lower house and upper house of German political system. The Bundestag members are elected for four year terms in the government. Bundestag will have more than 598 members of representations. Current lower house of chamber has 622 members. It is required by the party to have at least five percent of the national vote in the Bundestag to have the seats. Upper house of the German parliament is called Bundesrat. Bundesrat is a representation from all other states in the country. They are appointed by the state cabinets and can remove them any time if they want to. States selects the representatives to serve in the Bundesrat. The number of house members in Bundesrat is smaller than Bundestag. The lower house of the parliament has the power and authority to veto state level legislation and that will ultimately affect the governing power on the state level. Judiciary The judiciary system of federal republic of Germany is responsible to interpret, explain, and apply the law to the country and other states. German judiciary system practices civil law. The judiciary system of German has three court system and they are ordinary courts, specialized courts, and federal constitutional courts. Ordinary courts basically are responsible to dealing with criminal and civil cases. The federal court of justice of Germany is the highest ordinary court in the country. It is also the highest court of appeals that most of the cases go there for the highest appeals to be heard by the federal judges. Specialized court systems in Germany deals with issues that are related to administration, labor laws, social laws, budget and financial laws, and the patent laws. Any cases related to these issues are directed to the specialized courts in Germany. The highest federal Germany court is called as the constitutional courts and this court focuses on judiciary system and any constitutional issues. If there are any issues related to the constitution of the federal government, the Federal Constitutional court will be involved. The States Germany is divided into sixteen states. It is also called Landers. The government of Germany has federal constitution, all the sovereignty are given to the state and they manage and govern the state level affairs abide by the federal constitution. Since the population on these states are not same and can vary therefore, the size and territory of these states also vary. Each state has its own capital and has their own local and regional government to govern the people of the state. Political parties In democratic countries there will be political parties to run for the government. In the federal parliament government of Germany there are two major political parties and they are Center-Right and Center-Left. The Center-Right has two other parties and they are Christian Democratic Union, and Christian Social Union. These two parties operate differently and they operate thought the country. The Centre-Left Party is the Social Democratic Party. There are other parties as well and they are named as The Left Party, and the German Green Party. The current political party in the government now is Christian Democratic Union (CDU). Angela Merkel is the present head of the government of Federal Republic of Germany. Currently Joachim Gauck is serving as the head of the states in Germany. Strengths and Weakness of Parliament System Any political system has strengths and weaknesses. Political system in federal parliamentary system also has strengths and weakness. One advantage of parliamentary political system is that the executive branch is dependent on Bundestag and Bundesrat and its easy and fast to pass the legislation that was proposed. Strength is that the executive power is divided into states and is not fully concentrated to the head of the federal government. The most significant strength I like is based on the series of debates, it can change the power without election and then allow election to be held at any time, so there is flexibility if need be. One weakness of the parliamentary system is that the head of the government, the chancellor is not directly elected. Also, there is no any group or body that they oppose the legislation that is passed by the parliament. Executive branch and legislative branches are closely connected and the checks and balances between them are poor. There are possibilities of having informal constitutions Sometimes reserve powers are used which are not democratic and can cause crisis in the constitution. It is also possible that the parliamentary system can develop political authority from the executive branch. Conclusion The political system of Republic of Germany is very interesting. The political system of Germany is fairly decentralized system in which the system is categorized into executive, legislative, judiciary, and cabinets. In this system, the people will elect legislation, the legislation body elect executive, and the executive body produces public policy. There are both good side and bad side of parliamentary political system. The judiciary system of German is called the basic law of the land. There are different political parties in the Republic of Germany and all can participate in the political process and involve in the election processes. In Germany, chancellor is the head of the government, and the president is the head of the sixteen states. References Caramani, D. (2011). Comparative politics (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. German political system. (n.d.). Retrieved May 12, 2015, from http://www.rogerdarlington.me.uk/Germanpoliticalsystem.html Neil, P. (2007). States. In Essentials of comparative politics (2nd ed.). New York, N.Y.: W.W. Norton .

The Fight Against Child Abuse :: Violence Against Children

Could you imagine how children must feel when they are abused by someone that is supposed to love and protect them, and nothing is done to help them? For this reason, it is important to realize there are legislative laws protecting child abusers from hate crimes, and excuses certain people from mandated reporting abuse. In fact, almost 5 children die every day as a result of abuse (Child Help, 2011). Also, money is spent to convict and imprison child abusers which could be put towards programs that help people to recognize and prevent abuse. Children are the future; therefore, it is important for them to grow up in an environment they can thrive, feel safe and free from harm. After all, as the old saying â€Å"It takes a village to raise a child† stands true to this day. Now is the time for everyone to put forth the extra effort to create ways to bring child abuse, a growing epidemic to an end. As responsible citizens it is the duty to report when child abuse is suspect ed, create laws that implement stiffer penalties, and teach people how to recognize the signs and how to prevent abuse. Anyone that suspects a child is neglected or abused should be mandated to report the abuse to an official, no exemptions, and no exclusions. Childhelp National Child Abuse Hotline if available at 1-800-4-A-CHILD (1-800-422-4453). This number is used to report abuse, or get help from abuse (Help Guide, 2011). A suspected child abuse case is reported every 10 seconds this totals to more than 3 million cases yearly involving more than 6 million children (Child Help, 2011). Imagine how many child abuse cases go unreported! If children are not protected from abuses this may make the victims lash out later in life and be abusers themselves. Bill SB1313 will excuse people that volunteer their time from mandated reporting. An example of a volunteer that would not be required to report abuse under this law would be a Sunday school teacher. If the Sunday school teacher is aware of child abuse within the church, then the teacher would be exempt from mandated reporting (World Net Daily, 2 004). If most child abuse cases go un-reported imagine if this law passed! The number of child abuse cases and deaths resulting from abuse would drastically increase.

The Paris Peace Treaties Essay -- History

The Paris Peace Treaties The Paris Peace Treaties (1919-1920) IB History To the subject and passive onlooker, those meticulous organizers of the Paris Peace Treaties allowed for an unfortunate amount of flaws to enter their task of creating a treaty that could satisfy all of the nations of not only Europe but of the world as well equally. Yet one must attempt to put that passiveness behind and admit that those of the time of post World War I had truly no idea what was to come of their decisions. Thus, the decisions of these toilers of the Paris Peace Treaties undoubtedly made a medley of wrong judgments that were virtually unforeseen at the time. The first of these mistakes was that they looked over the problems that the innumerable ethnic groups of Europe would cause. Second to be overlooked was France, still highly intimidated and insecure of a Germany that it wanted to see completely annihilated and rendered powerless. Lastly, was the Central powers, angry and cheated over their extremely harsh punishments. Thus the founders of the Paris Peace Treaties, despite doing their best to form a way to peace and betterment for Europe, managed to make a great deal of unanticipated oversights in their quest for harmony. The continent of Europe was composed of legions of different ethnic groups that at the end of World War I caused many problems for the treaty drawers of Paris. Even Wilson himself confessed that there were far many more ethnic groups in Europe than he at first realized- most of them seeking their own personal independence. Eastern Europe and the Balkans because many historical occurrences (such as invasions and migrations) were made up of â€Å"a bewildering kaleidoscope of races and religions.† There were still hordes of nationalistic minorities in countries with a majorities of ethnic groups not of their own. To make things even more difficult for the writers of the Paris Peace Treaties was that these races did not live in their own separate areas of the countries of Europe. They lived mixed among themselves, dispersed throughout the regions with the race of the majority. In addition to the problems left to those who drew up the peace treaties (in accordance to the â€Å"ethnic problems†) were that there were still populations of a race of people within various nations that belonged ethnically to another nation. For example, within Hungary ... ...ed to create an agreement for the best of the world. Conclusively, the writers and founders of the Paris Peace Treaties, despite their efforts to bring a lasting peace to the world, made a variance of unforeseen mistakes in their toil. For the uncountable amounts of varying ethnic groups could not be easily separated without annoying at least someone- and since the Central powers were the losers, logic suggested that it would be them. Secondly, France’s increasing insecurity towards Germany that dated back decades caused for it to demand Germany to be paralyzed forever. This as well as other forms of Allied punishments caused for increased Central power animosity towards the Allied powers. Therefore, the intent of peace treaties was well intentioned initially, and the criticism of them was undeserved in that there was nothing that anyone could do else without the impossible of power seeing into the future Bibliography 1. (Handout) Lentin, Antony. â€Å"The Consequences of the Versailles Settlement.† 2. (Handout) Sharpe, Alan. â€Å"Part I: The Post War Settlement. 3. Wolfson, Robert. Years of Change: European History 1890-1945. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1978, pp.183-192.

The Importance Of Wind Turbines Engineering Essay

With world-wide energy demands invariably on the rise, the demand for sustainable green energy beginnings is going of all time more of import. Global population growing and emerging developing states paired with an exhaustible supply and changeless addition in monetary value of the universe ‘s fossil fuels is doing an increased involvement into alternate energy beginnings. Based on current ingestion of the universes fossil fuels an appraisal of the length of clip staying before each modesty runs out, taken from ; World Fossil Fuel Reserves and Projected Depletion, Colorado River Commission of Nevada, March 2002, can be seen in table 1. Fossil fuel Estimated old ages left before complete exhaustion Petroleum 98 old ages Natural gas 166 old ages Coal 230 old ages ( table 1 ) Even though these appraisals do n't take into history the find of new fuel militias and the outgrowth of new more efficient dodo fuel energy engineerings they still give a image of why investing and research into sustainable engineerings is going of all time more extended and popular. Figures show that in 2011 the planetary air current power market grew by 20 % with a world-wide investing transcending ˆ 50 billion. ( Global Wind Energy Council, 2012 ) Wind power engineering is quickly going one of the most popular alternate energy beginnings for several grounds: It is environmentally friendly and will greatly cut down C dioxide emanations Contrary to popular belief, wind turbines are going more and more efficient at change overing energy and hence more cost effectual Wind power unlike fossil fuels is an unlimited beginning of energy and is readily available all around the universe. Low running costs one time wind turbines have been set up and a comparatively little required work force compared with conventional energy engineerings. Much safer than dodo fuel combustion and atomic power workssHistory of air current turbinesWorlds have been tackling the power of the air current for 1000s of old ages. The earliest hint can be dated as far back as 4000BC where the ancient Chinese began utilizing the air current to power canvass attached to their ships. Other than sailing, the air current has influenced much technological promotion. It has played an of import function in agribusiness, where windmills have been used to crunch grains and irrigate Fieldss. It was n't until the last 150 old ages that wind power has been used to change over kinetic energy into electricity. The first of all time automatically operated air current turbine in the universe was built in 1888 by Charles Brush. It consisted of 144 blades and was able to bring forth 12 KW of power used to bear down batteries. ( wind power coevals ) . But it was n't until ww1 and ww2 where air current turbines were used commercially as a beginning of energy ( peculiarly in Denmark as it was cut off from oil supplies from the remainder of Europe. After this period research and involvement in air current engineering was non sustained due to the belief that it was non cost effectual. Although there was small planetary involvement in air current engineering at this clip some research was still carried out by independent developers, most notably the design of the 200KW Gedser air current turbine in Denmark. This was a pioneering design consisting of three flying blades and flying tip interruptions and is mostly considered be the trademark of all modern twenty-four hours wind turbines. It was n't until the 1972 oil crisis that wind power began to come into fruition with Denmark and the USA taking the manner in invention. Gedser air current turbine Denmark ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.energimuseet.dk/ )Modern twenty-four hours wind turbinesModern twenty-four hours wind turbines differ greatly from Charles Brush ‘s 144 blade turbine both in aesthetics and public presentation, but the rule behind bring forthing electricity is the same. Aerodynamic lift forces caused by the air current blowing past the blades cause them to revolve a shaft and in bend power a generator which converts this mechanical power into electricity.CategorizationThe air current turbines can be split into two classs: HAWT ; horizontal axis air current turbines, these are turbines which axis of rotary motion are horizontal, and VAWTS ; perpendicular axis air current turbines, these are turbines which axis of rotary motion are perpendicular. There are advantages for utilizing either for case the VAWT in non wind way orientated and does non necessitate to confront the way of the air current whilst HAWTS do, but HAWT ‘s are much more economical and practical than VAWT ‘s and besides produce more power. HAWT ‘s are by far the most common constellation of air current turbine and therefore for the intent of this thesis merely HAWT will be discussed. Example of a typical HAWT Example of a typical VAWT ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.turbinesinfo.com/ ) ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.top-alternative-energy-sources.com/ ) When planing a HAWT there are several factors which have to be taken into history: The HAWT design can be split into four different subsystems: Turbine rotor subsystem Power-train subsystem Nacelle subsystem Tower subsystemTurbine rotor subsystemThe design of the rotor subsystem if frequently considered the most of import, as it straight affects the cost, efficiency and public presentation of the air current turbine. When planing a rotor subsystems there are several facets which must be examined:Shape of rotorFrom flying tip to root, the form of the rotor blade does non stay changeless. The tip of the blade is much narrower than the root. This is because of demand for the root to structurally back up the remainder of the rotor blade. Besides the farther off from the root the greater the additive velocity, purchase and the greater the part toward the blades rotation.Power= force ten velocity This means that points nearer the shaft have less of an consequence on rotary motion, and hence holding a thicker less aerodynamically efficient blade subdivision at this point will non hold every bit serious effects as it would at the tip. Unlike a typical aeroplane flying blade a air current turbine blade has a just sum of turn. Besides unlike an aeroplane wing, turbine blades undergo rotational motion doing this demand for greater turn. Turn of a turbine blade is when the tip is non parallel to the root. As mentioned before the tips of the blade have a greater additive velocity than closer towards the root, but the air current velocity along the full blade remains changeless. Due to the comparative velocity non staying changeless along the blade, holding the same angle of onslaught throughout would intend different points along the blade meeting the air current at sub-optimal angles of onslaught with hapless lift to drag coefficients. Therefore to do the angle of onslaught relation to the way of wind the same throughout the full blade, a turn angle must be implemented. ( wind turbine engineering, pg 53 )Number of bladesModern twenty-four hours HAWT most normally have merely two or three blades, although they would st ill work with a smaller or larger figure of blades, but these constellations are uncommon. It is mostly considered that three blade turbines are the most effectual with the best combination of balance, efficiency, and aesthetics.Blade pitchBlade pitch is the angle between the blade chord line and the plane of rotary motion. Pitch mechanisms allows for a manner to command the starting torsion, peak power, and halting torsion of the turbine ( Wind turbine engineering, pg 51 ) . Most big air current turbines have a pitch mechanism integrated into the design, but due to their cost some smaller turbines have fixed pitch. Some wind turbines may besides hold tip interruptions. These halt the rotor rotary motion by turning the tip of the blades to right angles with the way of gesture, doing an addition in retarding force.Blade MaterialChoosing the right stuff for the design is of import, depending on the rotors size and design a stuff with equal strength, stiffness, weight and cost must be found. Early on air current turbine rotor blade designs consisted of wooden complexs and lightweight metals. Most wind turbines today use either fiberglass or plastic complexs for building due to their low costs, strength and weariness features. ( wind power, Paul gipe, pg 110 )Power train subsystemConsists of a series of mechanical and electrical constituents, to change over mechanical power caused from the rotor to electrical power. It includes ; low velocity and high velocity thrust shafts, a gear box, an electrical generator and a rotor brake every bit good as subsidiary equipment. ( wind turbine engineering, pg 52 ) . This is done by reassigning mechanical energy from the low velocity thrust shaft attached to the rotor, to a high velocity thrust shaft to power a generator.Nacelle subsystemThe nacelle is the lodging to all of the power train subsystems every bit good as the gaping systems. It must protect these systems from all conditions conditions every bit good as act a primary burde n way from the shaft to the tower. ( wind turbine engineering, pg 54 ) . The ability for a turbine to gape is of import. A turbine turned at 90 & A ; deg ; to the air current will bring forth no lift and hence no rotary motion, whilst if it is at 0 & A ; deg ; to the air current it will bring forth maximal sum of lift and maximal rotary motion. Yawing is of import in acquiring maximal power out of a air current turbine and even gaping a twosome of grades to confront the air current will profit. Modern air current turbines have a yawing mechanism to let, non merely for the turbine to confront the air current but when in non in operation to confront 90 & A ; deg ; to the air current to halt rotary motion. ( wind turbine engineering, pg 54 )Tower subsystemThe tower raises the nacelle and the rotor off the land. The tallness of the tower is dependent on geographical location and the trade of between increasing the tower tallness to make more powerful air currents and cost. The tower must be structurally really strong and stiff both to back up the nacelle and rotor, every bit good as withstand quivers caused by the rotor. Towers are normally made from steel or reinforced concrete. ( wind turbine engineering, pg 56 )Tip velocity ratioThe velocity in which the blades rotate is an of import factor to see. If the blades rotate excessively easy so most of the air current will go through between them undisturbed with really small energy extracted. If excessively fast, so the blades wi ll be whirling through disruptive air caused by the other blades, every bit good as doing the turbine to be put under increased emphasis which could take to mechanical failure. Wind turbine blades are hence designed to revolve with an optimal tip velocity ratio to pull out the maximal energy possible from the air current. Tip velocity ratio can be defined as the ratio of blade tip velocity to weave velocity. The tip velocity ratio is straight affected by the figure of blades of a turbine, the fewer the figure of blades the faster the rotary motion velocity will necessitate to be to pull out maximal power. For three bladed air current turbines the tip velocity ratio is by and large in the scope of 6-8 with 7 being the most common value ITECHOPEN.com pg Betz one pg 29 Generally interior decorators will take to maintain the tip velocity ratio every bit high as possible to increase the velocity in which the shaft connected to the generator spins, but higher tip velocity ratios besides have several disadvantages: Increased tip losingss ensuing in decreased efficiency Increased noise Increased quiver Erosion caused by dust atoms Efficient airfoil design is hence particularly of import to let for higher optimal ratios to be met whilst restricting these negative effects.Finish! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !Lift, Drag and Pitching MomentThe lift, retarding force and pitching minute are all moving on a air current turbine rotor blade. And figure†¦ †¦ . shows the orientation of these. Lift is the force moving perpendicular to the oncoming air flow and is required to get the better of gravitation. ( Hansen,2008 pg 8 ) The retarding force force acts perpendicular to the lift force and hence parallel to the oncoming air flow. The retarding force force is a combination of the syrupy forces between the air and the airfoil, and the force per unit area differences over the airfoil ensuing in whirls. As mentioned by Hansen, 2008 pg 8 the lift to drag ratio should be maximised to acquire a more efficient airfoil. The coefficients of lift and retarding force can be defined as: Where, is the air denseness and is the length of the airfoil chord. These coefficients are maps of Reynolds figure, Mach figure and angle of onslaught. To to the full depict the forces it is necessary to cognize the pitching minute about a point of the airfoil. As stated by Hansen 2008, pg 8 This is located at a distance of ? length along the chord line from the taking border. It is defined as:Betz boundThe Betz bound was foremost introduced by German applied scientist Albert Betz in 1919 and is the maximal theoretical power that can be extracted from a air current watercourse. Harmonizing to Intechopen.com pg 26 for maximal energy extraction the downstream speed should be equal to of the upstream speed, therefore the optimal value for the power coefficient will go: This value is about and is known as the Betz bound. Using this standard a value for air current turbine efficiency can be defined as the ratio of power coefficient to Betz bound: Figure†¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ Hansen 2008 pg 40 shows how the maximal efficiency is affected by the tip velocity ratio. For low tip velocity ratios the efficiency will be decreased for illustration, a tip velocity ratio of 1 will give a maximal efficiency of about 70 % , whilst a tip velocity ratio of 10 will give a maximal efficiency of about 98 % . This shows that air current turbines higher tip speed ratios can pull out more energy and therefore a higher tip velocity ratio is a coveted feature.Blade Element Momentum theoryBlade component impulse theory is a combination of two air current turbine analysis methods. The 1st method is to execute impulse balance equations on a revolving annulate watercourse tubing which passes through the turbine. The 2nd is to analyze the forces generated by the lift and retarding force coefficients along the blade by dividing it into subdivisions.Momentum theoryAxial forceAssuming a air current turbine as being in a control volume disc actuat or theoretical account as seen in figure†¦ †¦PremisesThis is a really basic theoretical account which assumes no aftermath rotary motion. Stations 1, 2, 3 and 4 are at places upriver of the turbine, merely before the turbine, merely after the turbine and downstream of the turbine, severally. Between Stationss 2 and 3 energy is extracted from the air current ensuing in a force per unit area alteration. The mass flow rate of the control volume must stay changeless harmonizing to the continuity equation: Besides if we assume continuity of speed through the turbine so and and because the flow is frictionless so we can use Bernoulli ‘s equation between 1and 2, every bit good as 3 and 4 giving up: Uniting these equations gives: As force is equal to coerce clip ‘s country so the push generated by the turbine can be calculated as: The axial initiation factor is a factor of vaiation of the cross sectional country of the turbine blade which varies as a map of flow speed. ( Eng.fiu.edu, pg 21 ) . It can be defined as: Therefore: If this is substituted into the trust equation it yields: Using this equation the power end product of the turbine can so be found by specifying it as thrust times speed. Therefore:Power and Thrust CoefficientThe power generated by the kinetic energy of the air current fluxing at a air current turbine can be defined as: The public presentation parametric quantities of a air current turbine can be characterised by the power and thrust coefficients. Where the coefficient of power is the ratio of power generated by the air current turbine to power available given by: Similarly the thrust coefficient can be defined as: Harmonizing to the Betz limit the coefficient of power can ne'er transcend a value of. These public presentation parametric quantities can be related to the axial initiation factor by uniting with the power and thrust equations severally giving:Blade Element TheoryBlade component theory involves dividing a blade up into N figure of subdivisions ( or elements ) . The fluid flow will be different across each component as they will hold different rotational velocities, chord length, and turn angle ( wind turbine design grant ingram ) . Therefore numerical integrating along the blade span is required to find the overall public presentation.Relative speedThe comparative air current speed is the vector amount of the horizontal air current speed at the blade, and the speed caused by blade rotary motion. The rotary motion constituent is the vector amount of the blade speed and the rotational flow due aftermath rotary motion is.To give a more accurate estimation of the airfoil public presenta tion an norm of recess ( place 2 ) and issue ( place 3 ) is used where is the mean rotational flow due to wake rotary motion. Wind turbine explained pg 107. Knowing this an equation can be writ for the mean digressive speed: Figure 5 shows the geometry of a air current turbine blade grant ingram pg 9 From the figure 5 we can infer that: Where the value of will change along the span of the blade. This equation can be related to the tip velocity ratio which is defined as: Threfore: Using figure 6 we can besides associate that the equation for the comparative speed is:Blade ElementssFrom figure 6 the forces moving on a blade component can be seen. These forces can be equated as: Taking into history the coefficients of lift and retarding force antecedently defined as equations†¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ .. ClCd graph possibly? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? so the forces moving on a blade component can be written as: Where B is the figure of rotor blades. The torsion moving on a subdivision of the blade is the digressive force moving at a distance R from the Centre and is given by: From this equation the influence of retarding force can be clearly be seen. An addition in retarding force will diminish the torsion hence the power end product of the turbine. This is why when selecting or planing an airfoil for turbine usage, one of the key aims is to maintain the coefficient of retarding force every bit low as possible while keeping a high coefficient of lift. These equations can be expressed in footings of initiation factors by replacing equations†¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ †¦ and simplified by utilizing the solidness factor. The solidness factor can be defined as the ratio of blade country to country of the disc given by the equation ; The equations can so be written as: These two equations†¦ †¦ †¦ specify the push and torsion moving on an annulate subdivision of the blades severally.Tip losingssDue to the difference in force per unit area on the top and underside of the airfoil, air flows from the high force per unit area side to the low force per unit area side around the blade tip, cut downing the lift of the blade. To account for this loss of lift and hence power, a rectification factor is implemented. A method of gauging the tip losingss was obtained by L. Prandtl and the equation for the rectification factor is: Where is in radians. Equations.7,17†¦ †¦ so go:Blade component impulse theoryEquations for blade component impulse theory which are used in blade design and optimisation can now be defined by uniting the impulse theory equations for axial push and torsion, with blade component forces equations. These are:Used for ciphering initiation factorsPower end productThe entire power of each ring can be calculated utilizing equation: The entire power from the rotor can be calculated utilizing the equation: Where is the hub radius. The power coefficient of the rotor can now be calculated utilizing the equation: Where is the blade tip radius. Using the annulate subdivision torsion equation this power coefficient can be written as:

Reproductive System Essay

Discuss the purpose of the lesson. 2. Brainstorm with the class about body parts. 3. Use Reproductive System Visuals 1-6 to continue reviewing the male and female reproductive systems including the location and function of each part. . Lead the activity labeling parts of the reproductive system. 5. Assign homework. This lesson was most recently edited on March 23, 2011. Public Health – Seattle & King County  ©1988; revised 2011 www. kingcounty. gov/health/flash Lesson 2 – Page 1 Family Life and Sexual Health, High School FLASH Materials Needed Student Materials †¢ Reproductive System Worksheets (1 copy per student) †¢ Individual Homework: Anatomy (1 copy per student) †¢ Family Homework: Talking about the Reproductive System (1 copy per student) Classroom Materials †¢ Reproductive System Visuals 1-6 (contained in this lesson & also available online as a PowerPoint slide: www. ingcounty. gov/health/FLASH) †¢ Labeled body parts for classroom acti vity, one set per class †¢ Seven pairs of scissors Teacher Preparation Well in advance †¦ †¢ Review lecture notes due to the large number of terms and definitions. The day before the lesson †¦ †¢ Make copies of Materials Needed (see above) †¢ Prepare visuals for use on a SMART Board or projector. Note: When the lesson says â€Å"board,† use whatever is available in your classroom. Standards National Health Education Standard: †¢ Standard 3: Students will demonstrate the ability to access valid information, products and services to enhance health. Performance Indicator 3. 12. 4: Determine when professional health services may be required. Washington State Health Education Standard: †¢ Essential Academic Learning Requirement (EALR) 2: The student acquires the knowledge and skills necessary to maintain a healthy life: Recognizes dimensions of health, recognizes stages of growth and development, reduces health risks, and lives safely. Component 2. 2: Understands stages of growth and development. Grade Level Expectations (GLE) 2. 2. 1: Analyzes the physiological and psychological changes throughout the lifetime. Public Health – Seattle & King County  ©1988; revised 2011 www. kingcounty. gov/health/flash Lesson 2 – Page 2 Family Life and Sexual Health, High School FLASH Activities NOTE: Instructions to you are in regular font. A suggested script is in italics. Feel free to modify the script to your style and your students’ needs. 1. Discuss the purpose of the lesson. Identify the lesson as, primarily, a review of information that many students learned in earlier grades. Explain that being well-grounded in knowledge about the reproductive system will help them make sense of discussions later in the unit about pregnancy, birth control, and sexually transmitted diseases. Also, if they have health problems in the future, knowing body parts helps them explain to a health provider what they think the problem may be. 2. Brainstorm with the class about body parts. Write on the board in three columns: Male / Female / Both. Ask students to name reproductive system body parts, both internal and external, in the three columns. Fill in from the Teacher Master List (below) the parts that students don’t mention. As you list the parts on the board, briefly define each body part, where it is in the body and what it does. 3. Use Reproductive System Visuals 1-6 to continue reviewing the male and female reproductive systems, including the location and function of each part. Use a document camera (or SMART Board, overhead projector, etc) to project the images on the board. Explain that the parts labeled as male, female, or both are for most people, but when people are intersex (i. e. , they have a disorder of sex development), there may be some differences †¦ differences that were present at birth. NOTE: Briefly review â€Å"what it does† (each part’s function, below) if students are unfamiliar with the physiology, as you point to the visuals. Please do not feel that you must convey every bit of information in the Teacher Background chart, below. Find more suggested language regarding the hymen and circumcision in Lesson 16, p 5. Teacher Background Male Part penis (made up of shaft, glans, and sometimes foreskin) foreskin †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Public Health – Seattle & King County What it Is / What it Does allows passage of urine and of semen provides sensation (has many nerve endings) the average penis measures 3-4† when it’s not erect (flaccid) and 5-7† when erect 1 protects the glans of the penis provides sensation males who’ve been circumcised don’t have one muscular sac which is shorter when cold, longer when warm holds testes controls temperature provides sensation ww. kingcounty. gov/health/flash scrotum  ©1988; revised 2011 Lesson 2 – Page 3 Family Life and Sexual Health, High School FLASH †¢ †¢ produce sperm and sex hormones (androgens, testosterone) each is made of 500-1,200 feet 2 of tightly coiled tubes allows maturation of sperm cell from a man (commonly called â€Å"sperm†) they carry strings of genes (called â€Å"chromosomes†) or DNA instructions in case the sperm cell meets with an egg cell and fertilizes it. uspend the testis supply blood to the testis provide sensation carry sperm from the testis provides storage for sperm allow passage of sperm as big around as sewing thread they lead into the abdomen, where (behind the bladder) they widen into storage sacs contribute fructose (sugar) to semen for nourishing the sperm helps sperm live longer and travel better about a teaspoon full per ejaculation produces most of the fluid that makes up semen pair of glands produce fluid called pre-ejaculate or â€Å"pre-cum† that cleanses the urethra of acid (from urine) to protect the sperm estes (also called testicles) singular = testis epididymis (plural = epididymes) spermatazoan (plural = spermatozoa) †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ spermatic cords vas deferens (plural = vasa deferentia †¦ also called sperm ducts) †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ seminal vesicles semen prostate gland Cowper’s glands (also called bulbourethral glands) Female Part uterus (made up of muscular walls, a lining called the endometrium, and a cervix. The uterus is also called â€Å"womb†) cervix What it Is / What it Does †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ ouses and protects embryo/fetus/baby allows nutrient ; waste exchange with placenta nourishes an embryo, before a placenta grows the bottom section of the uterus produces fluids to help sperm travel produces a mucous plug to keep germs out during pregnancy allows passage of sperm produces fluids to cleanse and lubricate itself and to help sperm travel allows passage of shed endometrium during menstruation allows passage of baby provides sensation (has many nerve endings especially in the outer third) a collapsed tube, like a deflated balloon www. ingcounty. gov/health/flash vagina Public Health – Seattle ; King County  ©1988; revised 2011 Lesson 2 – Page 4 Family Life and Sexual Health, High School FLASH †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ 3† long when not aroused, 5-6† wh en aroused, 3 but very stretchy is the middle of female’s three openings membrane partly covering vaginal opening ome girls are born without a hymen may be stretched during sexual intercourse or by using a tampon or with fingers carry strings of genes called chromosomes which mix with chromosomes of sperm to direct fetal development if fertilized and implanted in the uterus they dissolve in the Fallopian tube after about 24 hours if not fertilized.